Fig. 3

Functional enrichment and PPI clustering analysis of common PFAS and HCC-associated targets. A KEGG pathway enrichment of the 174 overlapping PFAS-HCC targets using Metascape. Pathways are grouped into metabolism, immune regulation, and cancer-related processes. Enrichment significance was evaluated using the hypergeometric test, with Benjamini–Hochberg correction (adjusted P < 0.05). B PPI network analysis using the MCODE algorithm identified nine functional modules enriched in metabolic processes, drug metabolism, and tumor progression. Visualization created using Cytoscape (version 3.10.2)