Table 1 Summary of heart-organ axis interaction models
Organoid models | Strengths | Limitations | Applications |
|---|---|---|---|
hiPSC-derived multilineage organoids | - Modeling organ development trajectory - Mimicking tissue crosstalk mechanisms - More realistically simulating the internal microenvironment | - Unstable reproducibility - Limited replication of mature structures and functions - Lack of intervention methods due to incomplete understanding of development patterns | - Study of cardiogenesis and germ layer interactions [46, 47, 79] |
Assembloids | - Modeling direct inter-organ communications - Incorporating more complex cellular components - Exploring gene roles in inter-organ systems | - High heterogeneity - Difficult to standardize culture criteria - Lack of precise quantification techniques | - Studying complex heart diseases [54, 57]. - studying multi-organ system diseases [58, 64]. - Drug screening [57]. - Advancing individualized therapy [54]. |
Organoids-on-a-chip | - Precisely controlling microenvironment for inter-organ communications - Supporting multi-organ axis studies - Highly reproducible with dynamic monitoring | - Lack of standardized culture protocols - Limited complexity in microenvironment - Challenges with long-term culture and viability | - Modeling multi-organ diseases [93, 106, 107, 175]. - Drug screening [92, 95, 97, 105]. - Advancing personalized precision medicine [95, 101, 107, 175]. |