Fig. 5

hNSC-Exos enhanced mitophagy in damaged neurons. A WB analysis showed the expression of mitophagy-related proteins (PINK1, Parkin, Beclin, and LC3B), and data were normalized to GAPDH protein expression. B Representative fluorescence image of ROS (green), scale bar = 50 μm. The mean ROS fluorescence was quantified by ImageJ. C Mito Tracker Red CMXRos and Annexin V-FITC were used to jointly detect mitochondrial membrane potential level (red) and apoptosis (green), scale bar = 20 μm. The ratio of red/green fluorescence was quantified by ImageJ. D The expression of apoptosis-related indicators Bax, BCL2, Caspase 3, and Cleaved caspase 3, and data were normalized to GAPDH protein expression. *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01, ***P < 0.001, ****P < 0.001, ****P < 0.0001. Data were presented as mean ± SD from three biological replicates, each performed in triplicate. Experimental groups (‘Control’, ‘H₂O₂,’ and ‘hNSC-Exos’) are as described in Fig. 2. The “Mdivi-1” group comprises HT22 cells exposed to 400 μM H₂O₂ while also being treated with the mitophagy inhibitor 10 μM Mdivi-1, and the “Mdivi-1 + hNSC-Exos” group consists of HT22 cells exposed to 400 μM H₂O₂ while also being treated with the mitophagy inhibitor 10 μM Mdivi-1, followed by treatment with hNSC-Exos