Fig. 6

Spatial transcriptomics reveals SPP1-CD44 mediated tumor-immune interactions. A Spatial expression of CA9, SPP1, CD44, CD8A, and HAVCR2 in six ccRCC sections. B Spatial mapping in the P157 sample showing the proximity of tumor cells, exhausted CD8 + T cells, and M2 macrophages. C Number and strength of cell–cell interactions mediated by the SPP1 signaling pathway. D SPP1 signaling pathway network illustrating interactions among tumor cells, CD8 + T cells, and M2 macrophages. E Contribution of each ligand-receptor pair, highlighting SPP1-CD44 as dominant. F Violin plots of SPP1 and CD44 expression across cell types. G Network diagram of spatial SPP1 communication, emphasizing strong interactions between tumor cells, exhausted CD8 + T cells, and M2 macrophages